All of this helped to set the stage for Lawrence Kohlberg he came after Erickson and Piaget, but actually worked directly with Erickson. Kohlberg decided that if kids move along their development both emotionally and cognitively, then they must also move forward morally. If you think about it, this was pretty radical—do human beings pass through clearly-defined stages of brain development that correlate with how they make moral decisions?
We can summarize it, though, and the best way to do that is to describe the story Kohlberg told all of the people he studied. The story is fictional, but not outlandish; it sets up a clear moral dilemma, and Kohlberg paid attention to how different people of different ages made sense of the story.
A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her: it was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging 10 times what the drug cost him to produce.
He told the druggist that his wife was dying, and asked him to either sell it cheaper, or let him pay later. Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife?
Why or why not? Kohlberg, Lawrence Essays on Moral Development, Vol. I: The Philosophy of Moral Development. Kohlberg was instead interested in why people thought that it was OK to steal the medicine. From asking thousands of people of all ages what Heinz ought to do, Kohlberg discerned what he felt were predictable stages of moral development. Not everyone, he cautioned, would reach all of these stages despite their age, and it was perhaps this conclusion that created the most controversy.
Generally speaking, Kohlberg felt that moral development was characterized first by a more or less amoral stage: you want what you want regardless of right or wrong. African-American, Hispanic, and Asian parents tend to be more authoritarian than non-Hispanic whites. In collectivistic cultures such as China or Korea, being obedient and compliant are favored behaviors. Working class parents are more likely than middle-class parents to focus on obedience and honesty when raising their children.
In a classic study on social class and parenting styles called Class and Conformity , Kohn explained that parents tend to emphasize qualities that are needed for their own survival when parenting their children. Working class parents are rewarded for being obedient, reliable, and honest in their jobs. They are not paid to be independent or to question the management; rather, they move up and are considered good employees if they show up on time, do their work as they are told, and can be counted on by their employers.
Consequently, these parents reward honesty and obedience in their children. Middle-class parents who work as professionals are rewarded for taking initiative, being self-directed, and assertive in their jobs. They are required to get the job done without being told exactly what to do. They are asked to be innovative and to work independently.
These parents encourage their children to have those qualities as well by rewarding independence and self-reliance. Parenting styles can reflect many elements of culture.
Can you find elements of authoritative and coaching parenting, along with a little Love and Logic? About Since more women have been entering the workplace, there has been a concern that families do not spend as much time with their children. This, however, may not be true. Between and , the amount of time that parents spent with children increased overall Sandberg and Hofferth, Modern numbers for this vary widely, as many parents who work outside of the home also devote significant amounts of time to childcare, to 14 hours a week, compared with 10 in Seventy-five percent of children under age 5 are in scheduled child care programs.
Others are cared for by family members, friends, or are in Head Start Programs. Older children are often in after school programs, before school programs, or stay at home alone after school once they are older. But long hours in poor quality care can have negative consequences for young children in particular.
What determines the quality of child care? States specify the maximum number of children that can be supervised by one teacher. In general, the younger the children, the more teachers required for a given number of children. The lower the teacher to child ratio, the more time the teacher has for involvement with the children and the less stressed the teacher may be so that the interactions can be more relaxed, stimulating and positive.
The more children there are in a program, the less desirable the program as well. This is because the center may be more rigid in rules and structure to accommodate the large number of children in the facility. The physical environment should be colorful, stimulating, clean, and safe. The philosophy of the organization and the curriculum available should be child-centered, positive, and stimulating.
Providers should be trained in early childhood education as well. A majority of states do not require training for their child care providers. By working toward improving the quality of childcare and increasing family-friendly workplace policies, such as more flexible scheduling and perhaps childcare facilities at places of employment, we can accommodate families with smaller children and relieve parents of the stress sometimes associated with managing work and family life.
Work and mothering go hand in hand in many parts of the world. Consider the market women of Liberia. These are women who work as street vendors and are primary providers for their families. They come together in marketplaces along with their children to sell their goods while keeping a watchful eye on their children. Recently, they have been supported by President Sirleaf whose grandmother was a market woman.
President Sirleaf has worked to raise funds to improve the marketplaces and conditions for mothers and children. The hope has been to make these marketplaces more safe, to provide childcare, and social services to improve the lives of mothers and children Nance-Nash, Parenting generally involves many opportunities to apply principles of behaviorism, especially operant conditioning.
In discussing operant conditioning, we use several everyday words—positive, negative, reinforcement, and punishment—in a specialized manner. In operant conditioning, positive and negative do not mean good and bad. Instead, positive means you are adding something, and negative means you are taking something away. Reinforcement means you are increasing a behavior, and punishment means you are decreasing a behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, and punishment can also be positive or negative.
All reinforcers positive or negative increase the likelihood of a behavioral response. All punishers positive or negative decrease the likelihood of a behavioral response. See table below. The most effective way to teach a person or animal a new behavior is with positive reinforcement. In positive reinforcement , a stimulus is added to the situation to increase a behavior. Parents and teachers use positive reinforcement all the time, from offering dessert after dinner, praising children for cleaning their room or completing some work, offering a toy at the end of a successful piano recital, or earning more time for recess.
The goal of providing these forms of positive reinforcement is to increase the likelihood of the same behavior occurring in the future. Positive reinforcement is an extremely effective learning tool, as evidenced by nearly 80 years worth of research. That said, there are many ways to introduce positive reinforcement into a situation. Many people believe that reinforcers must be tangible, but research shows that verbal praise and hugs are very effective reinforcers for people of all ages.
Further, research suggests that constantly providing tangible reinforcers may actually be counterproductive in certain situations. For example, paying children for their grades may undermine their intrinsic motivation to go to school and do well. While children who are paid for their grades may maintain good grades, it is to receive the reinforcing pay, not because they have an intrinsic desire to do well. The impact is especially detrimental to students who initially have a high level of intrinsic motivation to do well in school.
Therefore, we must provide appropriate reinforcement, and be careful to ensure that the reinforcement does not undermine intrinsic motivation.
In negative reinforcement , an aversive stimulus is removed to increase a behavior. The annoying sound stops when you exhibit the desired behavior, increasing the likelihood that you will buckle up in the future.
Negative reinforcement is also used frequently in horse training. Riders apply pressure—by pulling the reins or squeezing their legs—and then remove the pressure when the horse performs the desired behavior, such as turning or speeding up.
The pressure is the negative stimulus that the horse wants to remove. Sometimes, adding something to the situation is reinforcing as in the cases we described above with cookies, praise, and money. Positive reinforcement involves adding something to the situation in order to encourage a behavior.
Other times, taking something away from a situation can be reinforcing. For example, the loud, annoying buzzer on your alarm clock encourages you to get up so that you can turn it off and get rid of the noise. Children whine in order to get their parents to do something and often, parents give in just to stop the whining.
In these instances, children have used negative reinforcement to get what they want. Operant conditioning tends to work best if you focus on trying to encourage a behavior or move a person into the direction you want them to go rather than telling them what not to do. Reinforcers are used to encourage behavior; punishers are used to stop the behavior.
A punisher is anything that follows an act and decreases the chance it will reoccur. As with reinforcement, there are also two types of punishment: positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishment involves adding something in order to decrease the likelihood that a behavior will occur again in the future. Spanking is an example of positive punishment. Receiving a speeding ticket is also an example of positive punishment.
Both of these punishers, the spanking and the speeding ticket, are intended to decrease the reoccurrence of the related behavior. Negative punishment involves removing something that is desired in order to decrease the likelihood that a behavior will occur again in the future. Putting a child in time out can serve as a negative punishment if the child enjoys social interaction. Taking away something that is desired encourages the child to refrain from engaging in that behavior again in order to not lose the desired object or activity.
It is just suppressed and may reoccur whenever the threat of punishment is removed. A motorist may only slow down when the trooper is on the side of the freeway. Another problem with punishment is that when a person focuses on punishment, they may find it hard to see what the other does right or well.
Punishment is stigmatizing; when punished, some people start to see themselves as bad and give up trying to change. Reinforcement can occur in a predictable way, such as after every desired action is performed called continuous reinforcement , or intermittently, after the behavior is performed a number of times or the first time it is performed after a certain amount of time called partial reinforcement whether based on the number of times or the passage of time.
The schedule of reinforcement has an impact on how long a behavior continues after reinforcement is discontinued. Children will learn quickest under a continuous schedule of reinforcement. Then the parent should switch to a schedule of partial reinforcement to maintain the behavior. Try this interactive to ensure you understand the differences between punishment and reinforcement. Check your understanding on the final slide by placing the correct terms in the paragraph.
Behavior modification uses the principles of operant conditioning to accomplish behavior change so that undesirable behaviors are switched for more socially acceptable ones. Some teachers and parents create a sticker chart, in which several behaviors are listed.
Sticker charts are a form of token economies. Each time children perform the behavior, they get a sticker, and after a certain number of stickers, they get a prize or reinforcer. The goal is to increase acceptable behaviors and decrease misbehavior. Remember, it is best to reinforce desired behaviors, rather than to use punishment.
In the classroom, the teacher can reinforce a wide range of behaviors, from students raising their hands, to walking quietly in the hall, to turning in their homework. At home, parents might create a behavior chart that rewards children for things such as putting away toys, brushing their teeth, and helping with dinner. In order for behavior modification to be effective, the reinforcement needs to be connected with the behavior; the reinforcement must matter to the child and be provided consistently.
Figure 5. Sticker charts are a form of positive reinforcement and a tool for behavior modification. Once this little girl earns a certain number of stickers for demonstrating a desired behavior, she will be rewarded with a trip to the ice cream parlor. Time-out is another popular technique used in behavior modification with children. It operates on the principle of negative punishment. When a child demonstrates an undesirable behavior, she is removed from the desirable activity at hand.
For example, say that Sophia and her brother Mario are playing with building blocks. Sophia throws some blocks at her brother, so you give her a warning that she will go to time-out if she does it again.
A few minutes later, she throws more blocks at Mario. In addition, there is frequently little correlation between how we score on the moral stages and how we behave in real life.
Psychology - 9. Erik Erikson- Industry vs. Inferiority Erik Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives.
Sigmund Freud - Psychoanalytic Theory The great psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud — focused on unconscious, biological forces that he felt shape individual personality. Image by Annie Spratt on Unsplash. Level One - Preconventional Morality In stage one, moral reasoning is based on concepts of punishment. Level Two - Conventional Morality Those tested who based their answers on what other people would think of the man as a result of his act were placed in Level Two.
Stage 2 Rewards are sought. A person at this level will argue that the man should steal the drug because he does not want to lose his wife who takes care of him. Conventional Morality older children, adolescents, most adults Stage Description Stage 3 Focus is on how situational outcomes impact others and wanting to please and be accepted.
The man should steal the drug because that is what good husbands do. Stage 4 People make decisions based on laws or formalized rules. Post Conventional Morality rare in adolescents, a few adults Stage Description Stage 5 Individuals employ abstract reasoning to justify behaviors.
The man should steal the drug because laws can be unjust and you have to consider the whole situation. Stage 6 Moral behavior is based on self-chosen ethical principles. The man should steal the drug because life is more important than property. Contributors and Attributions 2. Rewards are sought. During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school of thought known as behaviorism rose to become a dominant force within psychology. Behaviorists believed that psychology needed to focus only on observable and quantifiable behaviors in order to become a more scientific discipline.
According to the behavioral perspective, all human behavior can be described in terms of environmental influences. Some behaviorists, such as John B. Watson and B. Skinner , insisted that learning occurs purely through processes of association and reinforcement. Behavioral theories of child development focus on how environmental interaction influences behavior and is based on the theories of theorists such as John B.
Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. These theories deal only with observable behaviors. Development is considered a reaction to rewards, punishments, stimuli, and reinforcement.
This theory differs considerably from other child development theories because it gives no consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead, it focuses purely on how experience shapes who we are. Two important types of learning that emerged from this approach to development are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning involves learning by pairing a naturally occurring stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement and punishment to modify behaviors. Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes.
It also looks at how these thought processes influence how we understand and interact with the world. Theorist Jean Piaget proposed one of the most influential theories of cognitive development.
Piaget proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped revolutionize how we think about child development: Children think differently than adults. His cognitive theory seeks to describe and explain the development of thought processes and mental states. It also looks at how these thought processes influence the way we understand and interact with the world. Piaget then proposed a theory of cognitive development to account for the steps and sequence of children's intellectual development.
There is a great deal of research on the social development of children. John Bowbly proposed one of the earliest theories of social development. Bowlby believed that early relationships with caregivers play a major role in child development and continue to influence social relationships throughout life. Bowlby's attachment theory suggested that children are born with an innate need to form attachments.
Such attachments aid in survival by ensuring that the child receives care and protection. Not only that, but these attachments are characterized by clear behavioral and motivational patterns. In other words, both children and caregivers engage in behaviors designed to ensure proximity.
Children strive to stay close and connected to their caregivers who in turn provide a safe haven and a secure base for exploration. Researchers have also expanded upon Bowlby's original work and have suggested that a number of different attachment styles exist. Children who receive consistent support and care are more likely to develop a secure attachment style, while those who receive less reliable care may develop an ambivalent, avoidant, or disorganized style.
Social learning theory is based on the work of psychologist Albert Bandura. Bandura believed that the conditioning and reinforcement process could not sufficiently explain all of human learning. For example, how can the conditioning process account for learned behaviors that have not been reinforced through classical conditioning or operant conditioning According to social learning theory, behaviors can also be learned through observation and modeling.
By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information. Bandura's child development theory suggests that observation plays a critical role in learning, but this observation does not necessarily need to take the form of watching a live model. Instead, people can also learn by listening to verbal instructions about how to perform a behavior as well as through observing either real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books or films.
Another psychologist named Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning theory that has gone on to become very influential, especially in the field of education.
Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn actively and through hands-on experiences.
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