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Ryan Gregory for inviting us to participate in this special issue on eyes. Dustine Pruszko prepared the drawings in Fig. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Jeanne M. Reprints and Permissions. Serb, J. Evo Edu Outreach 1, — Download citation. Received : 23 July Accepted : 01 September Published : 25 September Issue Date : October Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all BMC articles Search. Download PDF. Volume 1 Supplement 4. Abstract For over years, molluscan eyes have been used as an example of convergent evolution and, more recently, as a textbook example of stepwise evolution of a complex lens eye via natural selection.
Full size image. What Makes an Eye? Table 1 Spatial resolution of a selection of animal eyes Full size table. The Chitons Polyplacophora and Their Simple Photoreceptors The polyplacophorans chitons are multi-shelled marine molluscs often found attached to rocks on the seashore. More Complex and More Kinds of Eyes: The Bivalves Bivalves clams, mussels, oysters are laterally compressed organisms typically adapted for life within the sediment of marine and freshwater systems.
Expanding Eye Diversity: The Gastropods Gastropods snails, slugs have a wide variety of eye types ranging from simple pit eyes without lenses or corneas to complex lens eyes see reviews in Messenger ; Charles ; Chase ; Bobkova et al. Specialized Eyes: The Cephalopods Cephalopods nautilus, squid, octopus are a lineage of highly specialized predators. Convergent vs.
Parallel Evolution From the preceding discussion, it should be clear that a myriad of eye types exists throughout the molluscs. Summary Molluscs provide multiple opportunities to study the eye and general evolutionary processes.
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Google Scholar Wake DB. Acknowledgments We are grateful to T. Eernisse Authors Jeanne M. Serb View author publications. View author publications. About this article Cite this article Serb, J. Copy to clipboard. Contact us Submission enquiries: Access here and click Contact Us General enquiries: info biomedcentral. Eyes have probably evolved at least 50 or 60 times across all animals, and in many cases, the molecular underpinnings of vision—the proteins that translate light signals to electrical signals—vary quite a bit.
And then, how does it become specified to the different types of light environments that the animals can occur in? She believes that the opsins, in most cases, are being repurposed from some other function within the animal to be used in the eyes.
Although there is a diversity of eye morphologies and of photoreceptors across animals, the building blocks—the genes that control eye development—are remarkably similar. For example, Pax6 is a developmental gene that is critical for eye development in mammals, and it plays a similar role in the development of scallop eyes. In a recent study preprint , Andrew Swafford and Oakley argue that these similarities belie the fact that many types of eyes might have evolved in response to light-induced stress.
Ultraviolet damage causes specific molecular changes that an organism must protect against. In the deep history of these components are genetic traits that trigger responses to light-induced stress, such as repairing damage from UV radiation or detecting the byproducts of UV damage.
Once the suite of genes involved in detecting and responding to UV damaged are expressed together, then it may be just a matter of combining those parts in a new way that gives you an eye, the researchers suggest.
And then once the components are there, whether it be pigments or photoreceptors or lens cells, then natural selection acts to elaborate them into eyes. However they were made, scallop eyes have some impressive functionality, warping their internal mirrors to bring light into focus like a telescope.
It may also be assumed that the molluscs' ancestors, primitive, worm-like ground-living creatures, also possessed such flat eyes. A primitive flat eye may be of valuable use to an animal either sessile or moving passively. The directed movement of more highly developed molluscs required the formation of more advanced light sense organs. In the consequence the light-sensitive epithelium of the flat eye caved in to form a pit.
So the light sense cells on facing sides of the eye can tell apart light and shade. That makes it possible to determine where the light comes from. Pit shaped eyes can be found in sessile and slow moving invertebrates. In adaptation to a directed movement there was not only an evolution of eyes, but also a change in body form: Sense organs became concentrated at the end of the body facing towards the the main direction of movement: The head evolved as the centre of sensory activity cephalization.
While a pit eye may be able to differentiate between light and shade, it is not capable of producing pictures. Especially for predatory molluscs, having to observe and to follow their prey, an improvement of the eye's picture projection capability was necessary: The eye opening narrowed, and in consequence the picture projected on the retina became more focused.
So the pigmented cup eye came into existence. Today, in its primitive state, this type of eye can be found among certain bivalves and turbellarian worms. Pigmented cup eyes can also be found among primitive, mainly sessile, gastropods, such as limpets Patellidae. Comparable to the pigmented cup eyes of primitive gastropods are the cuticular eyes of chitons Polyplacophora.
Those, as their name states, are situated in the dorsal shell plates of the chiton and enable the animal to tell apart light and shadow on its dorsal side. In the further course of evolution, the eye opening reduced in size and as a result the eye achieved abilities comparable to a so-called pinhole camera: A focused, but low-light picture can be projected to the retina.
Among the molluscs, pinhole eyes can be found among ormers Haliotidae and primitive cephalopods, such as Nautilus. Nautilus is a living fossil, a remnant from the Mesozoic. It is also assumed, that fossil cephalopods, such as the giant endocerate Cameraceras from the Ordovician had similar eyes.
In the pit eye and the pinhole eye, the inner space of the eye is filled by a secretion breaking the light rays and, at least basically, enhancing brightness and focus of the picture. This inner eye space could evolve noticeably, when the eye opening of the pinhole eye closed completely and was covered by a translucent epithelium.
Among more highly developed snails, especially carnivorous sea gastropods, this liquid-filled bubble inside the eye became a primitive lens, making possible the perception of a relatively focused picture with a usable brightness in contrary to the pinhole eye, in which focus always works at the expense of brightness.
This vesicular or bubble eye reached its highest state of evolution among terrestrial snails: Looking at Roman snails Helix pomatia one can already discover a primitive lens eye.
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